literary criticism: a cognitive approach (4 )

part 2

Herbert Simon




Context

A word that is recognized may be associated with a vast amount of information in memory. How long an essay could a person write from all of the information associated in memory with the word "religion"? However, not all of this information becomes available immediately upon recognition of the word. What symbols will be evoked from memory when the word is recognized depends on context, where context includes memory of surrounding elements of the text but also other relevant memory elements that have been active recently.再認出來的某一字眼，或許可以與記憶中的大量資訊(或譯情報)相關聯。一個人憑其記憶中的與「宗教(religion)」字眼相關聯的資訊，可以寫出多常的文章來呢？然而，並不是所有這些資訊都可在認出該字眼時，就即刻就定位的。字眼被認出來，究竟可以引發出記憶中的那些記號，要依其上下文而定，所謂的上下文，不只包括該文本的周圍諸元素的記憶，也包括最近被激活的記憶元素。




Accessing items in memory activates them so that they are likely to be evoked again by subsequent recognition of symbols that are at all connected with them. Because activation gradually dies away, only a small fraction of memory will be activated at any one time. If Roman Catholicism has been a recent topic of conversation or contemplation, then the word "religion" is likely to evoke information about Catholicism, but information about Islam may not come immediately to mind; while if the conversation was about recent developments in the Islamic world, the same word is more likely to evoke information about Islam.




接達記憶中諸項目即激活它們，所以它們可能再被引發來接續地再認出那些連接的記號。因為這些激活會逐漸衰弱，所以在任何一刻，只有記憶中的少部份會被激活。如果羅馬天主教義是最近的談話或沉思對象，那麼一提到「宗教」這字眼，可能引發天主教義方面的情報，而關於伊斯蘭的情報可能不會立刻被想到；反過來，如果最近談的是伊斯蘭的世界，那麼這同一「宗教」字眼更可能引發關於伊斯蘭的情報。




The meaning of the text, then, will be a function of the memory contents that are accessed by recognition of words. Which of the whole collection of memory contents will be accessed depends on context, that is upon what contents are both associated directly or indirectly with the word recognized and also the extent to which they have recently been activated.

因此，某文本的意義是由字詞的再認所接達記憶內容的函數。在全體記憶中的那一部分的內容會被接達，這要依上下文而定，而這又要依那些被認出的字詞所直接和間接所聯想的內容以及最近被激活的程度而定。




Many meanings can be evoked by recognition of a single word or phrase, and, especially if the context is lean, more than one of these meanings may be compatible with the text. Ambiguity of meaning derives from the multiplicity of elements that may be evoked by a text in specific readers and on particular occasions.

認出某一單字或詞彙可引發許多意義，而且，如果特別在語境單薄的時候，這些意義中的多個可能和該文本可以說得通。歧義是因一文本對於某特定讀者在某特別場合可能引發出多重文義而產生的。




The contents of the reader's memory have their origins both in direct experience with the physical environment and in communication with the surrounding culture, the latter generally accounting for far more content than the former. Hence, insistence that meaning is evoked in an individual memory in no way ignores the social content and origins of meaning.

讀者的記憶內容的源頭可分兩方式，即，直接與物理環境的體驗和與其周遭的文化溝通，後者所牽涉到的內容通常多於前者。因此，堅持認為意義是由某一特定個人的記憶所引發的說法，並無法忽略其社會的內容和意義的來源。




Compare, for example, the meanings evoked by the first and the last sentences, respectively, of Stendhal's Chartreuse de Parme. The novel begins:

譬如說，比較司湯達爾《帕爾瑪修道院》的第一句和最最末句分別引發的意義。該小說這樣起頭：、

On the l5th of May, 1796, General Bonaparte made his entry into Milan at the head of that young army which managed to cross the bridge of Lodi, and to teach the world that after so many centuries, Caesar and Alexander had a successor.

「公元1796年5月15日，Bonaparte將軍(案：即拿破崙)率領一支通過Lodi橋的青年軍進入米蘭城，此舉召告世人，即使凱撒與亞歷山大逝世這麼多世紀之後，後世英豪不讓先人。真是「時老英雄在」。」




Since we have just begun the book, our context derives from the knowledge and experiences we already have had prior to opening it. To give meaning to this sentence we must draw on our knowledge of history, of Napoleon and the critical battle at Lodi, of Rome, and of the Hellenistic world. What affect the passage evokes will depend on our own attitudes toward Napoleon, the French Revolution, and military conquest. Stendhal himself, of course, must have had in mind additional meanings that will only become apparent--will only be evoked--as the book proceeds.




因為我們才開始展卷讀這本小說，我們的語境是從過去的知識和經驗所得出的。要賦予這句意義，我們必須利用我們關於拿破崙與關鍵性Lodi戰役、羅馬、以及希臘文化世界方面的歷史知識。會影響這次進城所能引發的，依我們對於拿破崙、法國革命以及此次軍事征服的態度而定。當然，司湯達爾自己內心必須另有義旨，這只有隨故事的展開才能霍然開朗。




The last sentence of Chartreuse reads: 《帕爾瑪修道院》的末段這樣寫：

The prisons of Parma were empty, the count immensely rich, Ernest V adored by his subjects who compared his government to that of the grand dukes of Tuscany.

「帕爾瑪的監獄都空蕩著；伯爵的財富鉅大，Ernest 五世為其領地臣民所擁戴，他們將他比成托斯卡尼大公爵。」




This final sentence gains meaning from the whole novel that precedes it, in particular from the contrast between the glorious era of Napoleon and the mean epoch (in the novel's description) that followed. The last sentence of the Chartreuse explicates the first one, as the first now illuminates the last. The meaning of each is expanded by knowledge of the meaning of the other.

這句收場的意義來自整本上文，特別是拿破崙時代的榮光與相繼的乏善可陳時代(根據此小說的描述)的對照 。《帕爾瑪修道院》的尾句解釋開卷句，同樣，讀到結束語更讓開卷句的意思明白。這兩句相輔相成，讓我們的知識更上層樓。



The process of evoking is absolutely central to finding meaning and, indeed, to most thinking processes. When we attend to stimuli, certain patterns in the stimuli serve as cues: noticing them produces acts of recognition, and acts of recognition give us access to information stored in memory about the recognized things. We observe a face, and its features allow us to recognize a friend, thereby gaining access to the friend's name and all sorts of additional information about him or her.

這引發的過程對於我們尋找意義是絕對重要的，的確，它對大多數思考過程也是如此。當我們注意刺激，它的某些形樣可以作為提示：注意到它們產生再認的動作，以及該再認行為讓我們接達記憶中對於該認出物的情報。我們觀察一張臉，它的諸特徵讓我們認出它是某位朋友的臉孔，從而讓我們想起該朋友的名字以及與他或她相關的其他種種情報。




Recovering information by recognition is exactly like finding information in a book from an entry in the index. The cue, the index entry, directs us to the pages in the book where the information is stored. In fact, we will not be misled if we think of the human memory as a richly indexed encyclopedia, which is also liberally provided with cross-references (associations) from one part of the text to others. Observing a word or phrase in something we are reading, we recognize it, thereby getting access in a second or less to information stored in memory about it. Then we augment that information further (expand the meaning) by following associations (cross-references) in memory. In particular, we are likely to follow those associations that are activated. 藉由再認來恢復資訊，這正如從一本書的索引條目開始來找出情報。此時，提示為索引條目，它引導我們到書中儲存該資訊的頁碼中去。事實上，如果我們將人類的記憶想成類似一本有種種方便索引的百科全書—它的內文本身又有許多相互參照 (聯想) 處，這樣的比喻，雖不中也不遠。我們讀到讀物中的某字或某詞，我們認出它，從而在約不到一秒接達記憶中關於它所儲存的資訊。然後我們在記憶中將該資訊藉由聯想(相互參照)進一步擴充它(引伸其意義) 。特別是，我們可能會追隨那些被激活的聯想。

Another text, the opening lines of Camus' La Chute, illustrates brilliantly these mechanisms at work:

再舉另一文本的開卷句為例，卡繆(或譯加繆 1913-60)的《墮落》(Camus' La Chute 作者最後一長篇小說。下述翻譯參考過四卷本《卡繆全集》，特此致謝。) ：




May I, Sir, offer you my services without risking being importunate? I fear that you may not know how to make the estimable gorilla who presides over the destinies of this establishment understand you. Indeed, he speaks only Dutch. Unless you allow me to plead your cause, he will not guess that you want gin.

「先生，能否為您效勞而不致讓您煩透(risking being importunate)？我擔心那在這兒當家做主的、可敬的大猩猩聽不懂您的話。說真的，它只懂荷蘭語。除非您允許我為您解釋(plead your cause辯護)，否則它猜不出你要點的是gin酒。……」




Where might the cross-references in the text lead us? By the third sentence, we become aware that we are in the Netherlands, perhaps in Amsterdam (Dutch Æ Netherlands Æ Amsterdam). Of course "Amsterdam" can now evoke the whole mass of information we have about that city and associations with it. "Gin," in turn, cross-references to "bar," defining the milieu and identifying the "gorilla" as a bartender. Other connections are more subtle. "Plead your cause" suggests the law and indeed foreshadows the profession of the speaker. And the word "importunate," applied to the relation of speaker to listener, can lead some readers to the Ancient Mariner. Moreover, the tone of the passage may evoke in the reader whatever affect is associated in that reader's memory with a courtly manner (or a pretentious one, if it is heard that way). If we perseverate on the paragraph, there is much more that can be evoked--much of it idiosyncratic to the reader.




此文本的相互參照會導引我們什麼？讀到第三句，我們了解地點在荷蘭，也許是在阿姆斯特丹(荷蘭語(Dutch) Æ 荷蘭(Netherlands) Æ阿姆斯特丹 (Amsterdam)) 。當然，現在就「阿姆斯特丹」而言，可以引發我們一整系列關於它和其相關的情報。「GIN酒」參照到「酒吧」，界定了它的氛圍並確認出「大猩猩」為酒保(或酒店主)。至於其他的關連則比較微妙。辯護(plead your cause)暗示法律並先提示說話者的專業。「importunate」(讓您煩透)這字眼用來說明說者和廳者的關係，它會讓某些人想起《古舟子詠》(Ancient Mariner. Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834) The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (text of 1834) 或古埃及船民) 。尤其甚者，此段的語調或許可讓讀者引發種種關於彬彬有禮(或做作般巧言令色)的記憶聯想。如果我們持續執拗地探究這段下去，會引發出其他許多事情—其中對於讀者而言多半荒誕不經的。

2. 【心】 (異常行為、動作)，





、「」risking being importunate)，也許是在、、、、：，，、《》；！ importunate, Ancient Mariner. "importunate," applied to the relation of speaker to listener, can lead some readers to the





, The Ancient Mariner (pt. VII, last stanza) Most of our misfortune
are more supportable than the comments of our friends upon them. ... IX, l. 625), (Bryant's translation)
One more unfortunate Weary of breath, Rashly importunate, Gone to her death!

、、、，、、、、：，；？！who, while making a jest of his own trials and infirmities, could still listen with real sympathy to
the querulous and importunate complaints of ... train through the streets; no steamboat puffed at its wharves,
or ploughed up the river, like the enchanted ship of the Ancient Mariner,-- "Against the ...




http://floscarmeli.stblogs.org/archives/cat_poetry_and_poets.html





Samuel Taylor Coleridge--Rime of the Ancient Mariner

Find the full version of the 1834 revision of the poem here





Thus, the evocation of certain symbols may evoke others by the chain reaction that we call mental association. The burst of evocation that a bit of text may induce is limited only by the richness and complexity of the memory structures that it activates. The more elaborate the structures that are evoked, the more the meaning to the reader is defined by the reader's memory, the less by the author's words. The meaning of text is determined by a relation between the text itself and the current state of the memory of the reader, its contents, and its state of activation. 如此，某些特定記號的引發作用，或許可通過我們稱為心理聯想的連鎖反應引發出其他的。文本的一小部分可能誘導出引發之併發的能力極大，其限制只看激活的記憶結構的複雜和豐富而定。它所引發的結構要是更為精密，即，由讀者的記憶所界定的意義要是更多的話，那麼由作者的文字所引發的就越少。文本的意義的決定，是由下述的關係而定一組：文本本身和讀者記憶的現行狀態(案：上句的消長關係)、它的內容、以及它所處的激發狀態。




Although there is no doubt that the processes just described take place in the collection of neurons called the brain, neurophysiology has not yet discovered by what biological mechanisms they are accomplished. Nor do we know, physiologically, how neurons store memories. We do know, thanks to modern electronic computers, that memories can be stored in physical devices, and that such processes as evoking, activating, and associating can be carried out with them. 雖然上述剛描述的諸過程毫無疑問是發生在稱為腦的神經細胞集之中，不過神經細胞生理學還沒發現它們是由什麼樣的生物機制所造成的。同樣我們仍不知道，神經細胞是如何儲存記憶的(就生理學機制而言) 。不過我們確定知道，這要多虧現代的電子計算機之賜，記憶是可以儲存於物理的裝置中的，因此，它們可以完成舉凡諸如引發、激活、和聯想等等過程。

Without attempting to imitate the underlying physiological mechanisms, we can program digital computers to simulate human thinking closely at the level of symbolic processes (information processes). The hypothesis that this is possible--that the symbolic processes a computer can execute are precisely the processes that are needed for thinking of the sort we humans do--is referred to as the "physical symbol system hypothesis." Let us see just what this means--but first, what it does not mean. 我們不用試圖去模具這些深藏的生理上的機制，就可以寫電腦程式，就記號過程(資訊處理)層次來密切地模擬人類的思考。這一假設這樣是可能的做法，我們稱為「物理(實物)記號系統之假說」：電腦程式能執行的記號過程(資訊處理) ，正是人類思考所必要的那種。我們接下來要說這假設意味什麼，不過先談它不意味什麼。




The physical symbol system hypothesis does not mean that there is any resemblance between chips and neurons or between the arrangements of circuitry in a computer and in the human brain. But at a more aggregate level, symbols can be represented by neuronal patterns, and, in a manner that is wholly different physically, symbols can also be represented by patterns of electromagnetism in computers. It is at this symbolic level that, despite the radical difference in implementation, the symbols stored and processed in a computer can simulate the symbols stored and processed in the brain.

「物理(實物)記號系統之假說」不意味下述之間是相似的：電子晶片和神經細胞之間，或電腦電路的排列方式與人腦之間。不過在一更總體的層次，記號可以由神經細胞的形樣來再現(或譯表徵) ，它的方式在實物層次上可以完全不同，記號也可以由電腦中的電磁作用的形樣來再現。正是在記號層次上，電腦中所儲存並處理的記號可以來模擬腦中所儲存並處理的記號，儘管它們在實物層次差異相當大。




A symbol is a pattern, any pattern that denotes or points to some other pattern. The pattern pointed to may be another pattern stored in the brain (or computer) or a pattern in the external world. The basic processes that a computer can perform with symbols are to input them into memory, combine and reorganize them into symbol structures, store such structures over time, erase them, output them through motor processes, compare pairs of symbols for equality or inequality, and "branch" (behave conditionally on the outcome of such tests). The physical symbol system hypothesis asserts that possessing these processes is the necessary and sufficient condition for a system to be capable of thinking.

一個記號是一形樣(pattern，或譯為模式，本書將「模式」保留給model這字眼)，任何表示或指向某其他形樣之形樣。所指向的形樣可能會是儲存於腦中(或電腦中)之其他形樣，或外在世界的某一形樣形樣。一台電腦可以對記號所做的基本過程是，將其輸入到記憶體中，將它們合併並重組成種種記號結構，將這些結構儲存一陣子，並它們清除，透過馬達動力方式將它們輸出，比較一對記號，看它們相等或不相等，以及「分支」("branch"—依這些測試的結果而決定該走那條路徑) 。「物理(實物)記號系統之假說」確定處理這些過程為一個系統能夠思考的充分和必要條件。




To the extent that the hypothesis is true (an empirical question), computers can be used to simulate human thinking and, to the extent of their success, can provide testable and tested theories of thinking. The computer program (technically, a set of difference equations) is the formal equivalent of the systems of differential equations that natural scientists so commonly use to express their theories. One important feature that distinguishes this new form of theory is that it is not limited to numbers: symbolic computer programs can incorporate words, diagrams, or pictures as readily as numbers. As a matter of fact, numbers seldom enter at all into the programs that have been written to simulate human thinking.

在這一假設為真(此為一實証性的問題)的範圍之內，可以用電腦來模擬人類的思考，而依這方面的成功程度，可提供關於思考上的可測試和已測試的理論。電腦程式(就技術而言，它是一組微分方程)與自然科學家極通常用來表示他們的理論的微分方程組，在數學上是等義的。此一新的理論的一項重要特色是，它不必限於數字：記號性電腦程式除了數字之外，同樣可方便地包含文字，圖表，或圖畫。事實上，在用來模擬人類思考的程式中，很少用到數字。




The confidence with which, in the previous sections of this paper, I have spoken of the structure of human memory as resembling an indexed encyclopedia, or of the process of evoking meanings from memory, is based on the fact that just such processes have been embodied in computer simulations, and the behavior of the resulting programs in the face of varied tasks has been found to resemble closely human behavior in the same tasks (Feigenbaum and Simon, 1984).

我對於本論文上述數節所談的，諸如人類記憶結構像似有索引的百科全書，或是從記憶中引發出意義的過程，對它們有信心的根據是基於這些都在電腦模擬中實現，而其結果程式集的形為，在處理種種不同的任務時，都極類似人類在面臨相同任務時所作出的(Feigenbaum and Simon, 1984).。

The use of computers to simulate human thinking is usually regarded as a part of the larger discipline of artificial intelligence (as well as of cognitive psychology). So it is, but we should not confuse the aims and content of work in artificial intelligence that seeks to simulate human thought with the aims and content of quite different work that seeks to produce intelligent programs to complement (or sometimes substitute for) human intelligence. Artificial intelligence embraces both endeavors. 運用電腦來模擬人類思考，通常被看成是人工智能(以及認知心理學)的一部份。這的確如此，不過我們不要將下述兩關於人工智能的宗旨和內容搞亂了：其一是尋求方法來模擬人類的思考，其二是尋求方法有智能的程式來輔助人類的智力(案: 電腦相關的:智慧”觀念1969年才開始使用)。人工智能包括上述兩方面的努力。




If we write a computer program to play chess as well as it can (and the best existing programs play very well indeed), we need not observe the same limits on memory and processing speed as restrict humans. In fact, the most successful programs at present substitute a great deal of brute force search for human cunning. Deep Thought, the current champion among computer programs, may look at 50 million branches of the game, or more, before choosing its next move. Human grandmasters seldom look at more than 100 (but they almost always look at the relevant ones).




如果我們寫一電腦程式來盡力發揮其下西洋棋(或稱國際象棋)的能力(的確，這方面的佼佼者相當利害)，我們不須要遵守像在人類記憶的容量和處理速度上的限制。，事實上，目前這方面最成功的程式是用許多極笨卻極快速的蒐索方式，來取代人類的聰慧。目前程式中的冠軍名稱為Deep Thought，在下一棋子之前，可以同時觀照棋藝中的五千萬個或更多的決策分支。而相對照起來，人類中的特級大師（ Grandmaster ）則很少超過100個(不過他們所考慮的分支情形，絕大多數為相關的、有意義的可能性。

http://www.chessit.net/earlier.htm 國際象棋譯文苑


(案:技能的级别冠名，由低到高依次为：Neophyte（新人）、Novice（新手）、Apprentice（学徒）、 Journeyman（熟练工）、Expert（专家）、Adept（老手）、Master（大师）、Grandmaster（特级大师）。)

敬啟者

我是台灣的鍾漢清

請問國際象棋的排行大小順序是這樣嗎


(案:技能的級別冠名，由低到高依次為：Neophyte（新人）、Novice（新手）、Apprentice（學徒）、 Journeyman（熟練工）、Expert（專家）、Adept（老手）、Master（大師）、Grandmaster（特級大師）。)




When we write a computer program to imitate (and understand) how grandmasters operate, we forego the speed and memory advantages of the machine. Instead, we try to incorporate a rich body of chess knowledge in the program, and imitate the human capability of choosing good moves after searching very selectively. Computer programs, quite unlike Deep Thought, that play along these lines have performed at perhaps the Expert level, but not the Grandmaster level. This means that, while we have managed to simulate the principal mechanisms of human chess play, we have not yet managed to provide a single program with the full array of knowledge that a grandmaster possesses.

當我們寫一電腦程式去模仿(並了解)特級大師們如何運作，我們放棄電腦在速度和記憶上的優點而另起爐灶。我們試著在程式中包含豐富的國際象棋領域的知識，並在做了精選蒐索之後，模仿人類去下些不錯的棋路。這類與Deep Thought大異其趣的電腦程式的棋藝水準，大概在Expert級，還沒達到特級大師的水準。這含意是：我們雖然能模擬人類棋師下棋的主要機制，不過我們還沒本事在單一程式中，將特級大師的種種構思過程的完整知識納入。




To say much more about computer simulation of thought would go beyond the scope of this paper, but I and others have explained in some detail on other occasions how the processing of meaning is accomplished by computers (Simon, 1981, chapters 3 and 4). Computer simulation is the gold coin that stands today behind the promissory notes of neurophysiologists, who some day will tell us how the manipulations of meanings we now carry out in computers are carried out by brains. Until that time, simulation tells us why the symbolic manipulation called thinking can be carried out at all and provides us with a high degree of precision in expressing and testing our theories of human thinking. It assures us that when we talk about meanings, evoking, and associating, we are talking about perfectly definite processes that can be executed by mechanisms.

進一步討論思考的電腦程式模擬會偏離這篇論文的主旨，不過我與其他人在別處曾就「電腦如何處理意義」發表論文 (Simon, 1981, 第3-4章) 。電腦程式模擬是今日神經生理學家發行的鈔票的背後金幣準備金，這些神經生理學家往後的某一天會告訴我們，今天電腦程式所模擬的，在腦中是如何完成的。在這一天到來之前，電腦模擬告訴我們，為什麼我們可以由記號的處理，來對於我們稱為「思考」的諸理論之陳述方式，做出相當高精密的測試。它(模擬)可以確保我們在談論到意義、引發、和聯想時，我們所談的是完全確切的過程，它們可以經由諸機制來執行。





Let us turn to even simpler examples of meaning than those already discussed. Meanings can attach to units as small as a word (or even a morpheme within a word), as well as to clauses, sentences, and much larger units. We begin at the bottom. One can think about the meaning of the word "dog" in a variety of ways. One can think of the executable perceptual tests stored in memory that enable one to answer, more or less veridically, the question: "Is that a dog?" These tests provide what is often called the intensional meaning of the term.




我們現在轉題到那些關於意義的例子，它們遠比剛才談的更為簡單得多。意義可以賦在小單元，如字/詞(甚至於拼音字的語素(morpheme) ) 、子句、句子，以及更大的單元。我們先從底部談起。我們就英文的dog一字，可以作種種不同的想法。我們可以想到我們記憶中所儲的可執行的知覺測試，它們能讓我們多少合乎真實地回答這提問：「它是一條狗嗎？」這些測試提供我們通常稱為詞的「內包」意義。




But there is more to dogs than just recognizing them. One has also stored in memory a large body of information about dogs that goes far beyond the capacity of recognition. There is the whole set of dogs one has known: a part of the extension of the term. One knows also a great deal about what dogs eat, what noises they make (and under what circumstances), what behaviors toward them might cause them to wag their tails, to bark, or (worse yet) to bite. On the basis of this knowledge one can form expectations and predictions about a dog's behavior. One has not only knowledge and beliefs about dogs, but feelings as well. The mere propinquity of a dog arouses strong fear in some people and irresistible impulses to pet it in others.

不過，狗可不只是我們認出的而已。我們腦中還存有許多的關於狗的知識，它們遠比認出狗來更超過、深入。我們還有一大套關於「狗」這詞的知識：屬於其「外延」的部分。我們還知道許多關於狗吃些什麼，它們的種種吠聲(和其處的情況)，怎樣待它們才能讓它們搖尾巴，或吠叫，或甚至等而下之咬起人來。我們可以根據這方面的知識來形成對於一條狗的行為的期望和預測。




I haven't begun to exhaust the meaning of "dog" for almost anyone. There's the Dog Star, and dog days, hangdog behavior, a dog's life, and there are doggish people. All of these chunks, and others, stored in memory, are part of the meaning of "dog." Thinking of one or another of the chunks may evoke the word "dog," and hearing or reading the word may evoke some of the chunks.

其實我談到的「狗」的意義，還只是一般人所知道的一部分而已。還有某隻狗明星、酷熱夏日(dog day)、感到罪過的羞愧行為反映(hangdog behavior)、「日子可不怎麼好過…..(幽默，其實你很爽)」(a dog's life)、還有像狗一樣的(愛吵鬧的或暴躁的)傢伙們(doggish people) 。這些記憶單位(團塊，chunks)都存在記憶中，構成「狗」的意義之一部分。一想到上述的任一團塊，就可能引發「狗」這字，而且我們一聽到或讀到dog這字，可能引發記憶中的某些單元。


SEHR, volume 4, issue 1: Bridging the Gap

Updated 8 April 1995
Editor's note: Professor Simon's article appears here in 5 parts. This is the third part.

literary criticism: a cognitive approach