2015年5月26日 星期二

the Marshall Plan 的外交、政治、經濟

馬歇爾援歐計畫( the Marshall Plan),季辛吉從外交角度談它,H. A. Simon 參加過一組的顧問工作,所以將他的經驗寫在管理行為一書,請讀者從索引去找,欣賞Simon 將他的經驗模式化,探討不同的組織進入策略等等






Reflections on the Marshall Plan

Henry Kissinger recalls when George C. Marshall, speaking at Harvard’s Commencement in 1947, extended America’s hand to a battered Europe, helping to create a stable postwar order

May 22, 2015 | Editor's Pick Popular
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In June 1947, Gen. George C. Marshall — revered as the “organizer of victory” and Army Chief of Staff during World War II and now five months into his tenure as President Harry S. Truman’s Secretary of State — addressed the Commencement audience in Harvard Yard. Describing the devastation of Europe’s economies and societies, Marshall pledged the United States would do “whatever it is able” to help rebuild the continent and restore its “normal economic health,” without which there could be “no political stability and no assured peace” throughout the world.
His speech marked a historic departure in American foreign policy.
Marshall invoked no self-deprecating anecdotes or poetic metaphors to illustrate the importance of the occasion. Not for him were adjectives to describe the attributes the graduating students were expected to display. Duty was its own justification; it could only be impaired by embellishment.
After a brief preface recalling that, as the graduates knew well, “the world situation is very serious,” Marshall outlined “the requirements for the rehabilitation of Europe.” Rarely looking up from the text he had carried to the podium in his jacket pocket, he offered a revolution in American foreign policy in the guise of a practical economic program. Toward the end of the speech, he apologized for entering into a “technical discussion” that had likely bored his listeners. Indeed, Commencement attendees, including Harvard President James B. Conant, would later confess they had not immediately understood the historical significance of what Marshall had outlined. He had in fact proposed a new design for American foreign policy.
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“Marshall’s premise was straightforward: Economic crisis, he observed, produced social dissatisfaction, and social dissatisfaction generated political instability,” writes Henry A Kissinger. File photo by Stephanie Mitchell/Harvard Staff Photographer
Marshall’s premise was straightforward: Economic crisis, he observed, produced social dissatisfaction, and social dissatisfaction generated political instability. The dislocations of World War II posed this challenge on a massive scale. European national debts were astronomical; currencies and banks were weak. The railroad and shipping industries were barely functional. Mines and factories were falling apart. The average farmer, unable to procure “the goods for sale which he desires to purchase,” had “withdrawn many fields from crop cultivation,” creating food scarcity in European cities.
At the same time, a political and strategic challenge to democratic societies had come into being. Moscow established Communist dictatorships in every territory its forces occupied at the close of the war — up to the River Elbe in the center of historic Europe. Beyond the satellite states, Soviet-backed political factions were probing Western Europe’s political cohesion. To safeguard their political future, European democracies needed, above all, to restore hope in their economic prospects. “The remedy,” Marshall offered, was a partnership between the United States and its European allies to rehabilitate “the entire fabric” of their economies. To address the most immediate crisis, America would send its friends food and fuel. Later, it would subsidize modernizing and expanding industrial centers and transportation systems.
Marshall’s so-called “technical discussion” was in fact a clarion call to a permanent role for America in the construction of international order. Historically, Americans had regarded foreign policy as a series of discrete challenges to be solved case by case, not as a permanent quest. At the conclusion of World War I, domestic support for the fledgling League of Nations foundered and the country turned inward. Declining to involve itself in the latent crises in Europe, American isolationism contributed to the outbreak of World War II. But America’s traditional attitude was up for debate again following the Allied victory.
In his speech at Harvard, Marshall put an end to isolationist nostalgia. Declaring war on “desperation and chaos,” he invited the United States to take long-term responsibility for both restoring Western Europe and recreating a global order.

George C. Marshall on Commencement Day, 1947

Secretary of State George C. Marshall announced The Marshall Plan on Commencement Day 1947 in Harvard Yard.
Many of the Marshall Plan’s proposals were based on lessons learned in overcoming the depression of the 1930s by closing the gap between economic expectations and reality in America. In that sense, the plan represented the global application of the New Deal. But it succeeded because it transformed common necessities into partnership. Marshall stressed that it would be “neither fitting nor efficacious” for America to try to direct Europe’s economic recovery “unilaterally.” Common objectives were necessary — and they had to reflect a broader vision of political order for Europe, the Atlantic region and, ultimately, the world. The Marshall Plan inspired a new international order by enabling the nations of Europe first to rediscover their own identities in its pursuit, then to go on to build systems transcending national sovereignty, such as the Coal and Steel Community and, eventually, the European Union.
Luckily, Europe had leaders whose formative experience predated World War I, the most blighting impact of which was the continent’s loss of confidence in itself. But Konrad Adenauer (in Germany), Alcide De Gasperi (in Italy), and Robert Schuman (in France) had preserved the conviction that had characterized Europe’s life before these self-inflicted catastrophes. They viewed their challenge not in technical terms, but as the fulfilment of a political vision based on a common cultural heritage.
To British Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin, the Marshall Plan was “a lifeline to sinking men” that brought “hope where there was none” by giving recipients permission not only to overcome their present difficulties, but to imagine their future prosperity in cooperation with the United States. Paul-Henri Spaak, the Prime Minister of Belgium, called it “a striking demonstration of the advantages of cooperation between the United States and Europe, as well as among the countries of Europe themselves.” For this reason, French Foreign Minister Georges Bidault said, “The noble initiative of the Government of the United States is for our peoples an appeal which we cannot ignore.” And Dutch Foreign Minister Dirk Stikker anticipated the plan’s far-reaching impact, saying, “Churchill’s words won the war, Marshall’s words won the peace.”
Not the least significant aspect of Marshall’s speech was that it facilitated Germany’s reentrance into the community of nations as an equal partner. This is why in 1964, Adenauer, concluding his tenure as West German Chancellor, praised Truman for extending the plan’s provisions to Germany “in spite of her past.” The Marshall Plan, Adenauer said, made Germany “equal” to “other suffering countries,” countering for the first time the notion among the Allied powers “simply to efface Germany from history.” The plan gave Germany economic assistance but, more importantly, “new hope.” “Probably for the first time in history,” Adenauer said of Marshall’s speech, “a victorious country held out its hand so that the vanquished might rise again.”
An ingenious aspect of Marshall’s design was that aid was offered to all Europe, including the Soviet Union and its occupied satellites. Some of them — especially Czechoslovakia — were tempted. But Soviet leader Joseph Stalin rejected the offer on ideological grounds. He denounced the plan as economic imperialism — a “ploy” to “infiltrate European countries” — and forced his satellites to follow suit, thereby defining the fault lines along which the basic Cold War strategy of containment was to occur. As Moscow forcibly imposed its ideology on its sphere of influence, the Marshall Plan’s goals merged into a broader political one: the expansion of the concept of human dignity as a universal principle, and self-reliance as the recommended method of promoting it. While the Soviet system eroded gradually, Adenauer, De Gasperi, and Schuman helped to inspire the formation of the North Atlantic Alliance, the European Coal and Steel Community and, with the passage of decades, the European Union.
Every generation requires a vision before it can build its own reality. But no generation can rest on the laurels of its predecessors; each needs to make a new effort adapted to its own conditions. In Europe, the Marshall Plan helped consolidate nations whose political legitimacy had evolved over centuries. Once stabilized, those nations could move on to designing a more inclusive, cooperative order.
But subsequent generations occasionally took too literally Marshall’s description of the plan as “technical,” emphasizing its economic aspects above all else. In the process, they ran the risk of missing its political, indeed its spiritual, component. When America engaged in nation building in other countries, it found that political legitimacy had different foundations. As the United States tried to establish international order beyond Europe, economies remained vital. But the resolution of civil conflicts followed a rhythm beyond, and more complicated than, economic development. At times, attempts to apply literally the maxims of the Marshall Plan fractured the unity of America at home. Civil wars cannot be ended by economic programs alone. They must be transcended by a more comprehensive political vision.
The complexity of this challenge gives Marshall’s speech new significance today. In a moment of crisis, he stood up, boldly outlining a vision of reconciliation and hope and calling on the West to have the courage to transcend national boundaries. Now, the challenge of world order is even wider. Instead of strengthening a singular order on a continent with established political systems, the task has become global. The challenge is to devise a system in which a variety of societies can approach common problems in a way that unites their diverse cultures. This is why there is a special significance for the sons and daughters of Harvard of a speech delivered almost two generations ago. Universities are the residuaries of cultures and, in a way, the bridge between them. Twin calls to duty have emerged after almost 70 years from Marshall’s Commencement speech: that America should cultivate, with Western Europe, a vital Atlantic partnership; and that this partnership should fulfill its meaning by raising its sights to embrace the cultures of the universe.
Henry A. Kissinger ’50, A.M. ’52, Ph.D. ’54, and a former Harvard professor, was U.S. secretary of state from 1973 to 1977. A recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1973, he has authored more than a dozen books on foreign policy, international affairs, and diplomatic history.

2015年5月15日 星期五

Carnegie Mellon University:118TH COMMENCEMENT


Carnegie Mellon University
Carnegie Mellon University seal.svg
Former names
Carnegie Technical Schools (1900–1912)
Carnegie Institute of Technology (1912–1967)
Motto"My heart is in the work" (Andrew Carnegie)
Established1900 by Andrew Carnegie
TypePrivate university
EndowmentUS $1.60 billion (2015)[1]
PresidentSubra Suresh
ProvostFarnam Jahanian[2]
Academic staff
1,442[3]
Undergraduates6,237
Postgraduates7,048
Other students
130
LocationPittsburghPennsylvania,United States
CampusUrban, 144 acres (58 ha)
ColorsCardinal, Black, Grey and White                 
AthleticsNCAA Division III UAA
17 varsity teams[4]
NicknameTartans
MascotScottish Terrier [5]
   Websitewww.cmu.edu
Carnegie Mellon University wordmark.svg



Thursday, May 14, 2015

118TH COMMENCEMENT

Commencement

Carnegie Mellon University will confer more than 3,000 bachelor's, master's and doctoral degrees Sunday, May 17 at its main commencement ceremony in Gesling Stadium.
That figure includes the largest graduating class from the Carnegie Mellon University in Qatar campus: One hundred and four graduates representing 19 countries.
Brooke Kuei, who is graduating with university and college honors with a bachelor's degree in physics and a minor in professional writing, will deliver the student address at the ceremony.
She said she hopes her speech reassures classmates that they can spend their lives growing, learning and exploring — even as their time as at Carnegie Mellon comes to a close.
"I also want to remind everyone of how far we've come since we first got here — it sure hasn't been easy," she said. "But what we learned in these past couple of years has definitely prepared us for success in the future. "
An active member of the CMU community, she was a teaching assistant for physics classes, a mentor for the physics outreach program, a founding member of CMU's women's varsity golf team, Science and Technology editor of the student newspaper, and managing editor of the Dossier Literary and Arts Magazine.
At Carnegie Mellon, she discovered her passion for communicating science.
"Scientific advancements require a collaborative effort, and this collaboration is not possible without effective science communication," she said. "Science communication is necessary in order to make new discoveries and, perhaps even more importantly, to use these discoveries to change the world."
She will attend Penn State University this fall to pursue a Ph.D. in materials science and engineering and to advance her research in energy science.
Alan Alda, an acclaimed actor, writer and director, also has a passion for sharing science and technology. Alda will be the keynote speaker at commencement. He also will receive an honorary Doctor of Fine Arts degree for exemplifying CMU's interdisciplinary strengths in the arts and sciences.
A seven-time Emmy Award winner, Alda is best known for his starring roles as Hawkeye Pierce in the TV series "M*A*S*H" and as Arnold Vinick in "The West Wing."
As a science enthusiast, Alda hosted "Scientific American Frontiers" on PBS for 11 years, interviewing leading scientists from around the world. He has worked on award-winning PBS programs "The Human Spark," which explored what makes us human, and "Brains on Trial," which focused on the implication of contemporary brain science for the U.S. justice system and included an interview with CMU's renowned neuroscientist Marcel Just.
He helped found the Alan Alda Center for Communicating Science at Stony Brook University, where he is a visiting professor, and since 2008, he has worked with physicist Brian Greene on presenting the annual World Science Festival in New York City. He received the 2013 Scientific American Lifetime Achievement Award and was recently elected a fellow of the American Physical Society in recognition of his work in advancing the communication of science.
Honorary Degree Recipients:
It is a Carnegie Mellon tradition to award honorary degrees at commencement to exemplary leaders, whose life and work serve as an inspiration for Carnegie Mellon students, faculty and staff. In addition to Alda, this year's honorary degree recipients are:
Joyce Kozloff (A'64), a major American visual artist whose work fuses pattern and movement with social engagement, will receive a Doctor of Fine Arts degree.
Kai-Fu Lee (CS'88), a prominent computer scientist, venture capitalist, corporate leader, writer and former CMU faculty member, will receive a Doctor of Business Practice degree.
Stephen Schwartz (A'68), one of the most successful songwriters in the history of musical theater with three Academy awards, four Grammy awards and four Drama Desk awards, will receive a Doctor of Fine Arts degree.
Carl Wieman, who shared the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics, will be awarded a Doctor of Science and Technology degree.
Event Information
Guests attending the ceremony will be asked to be seated at 10 a.m. Graduates will begin processing to their seats at 10:15 a.m. The ceremony will take place at 11 a.m., rain or shine.
For guests who wish to view the event indoors, the ceremony will be simulcast in McConomy Auditorium, first floor, Jared L. Cohon University Center.
Those unable to be on campus for the ceremony can watch via webcast.
Graduates and their families are encouraged to share photos and posts on social media and to tag them with #CMUgrad. Follow @CMUcommencement on Twitter for the most up-to-date commencement news.
Posts will appear on the webcast page and some will be featured on the screens at the stadium.
Related:

2015年5月7日 星期四

Artificial Intelligence (The Economist);The John von Neumann lectures


John von NeumannComputer pioneer and scientific polymath – without doubt one of the 20th century’s greatest minds.
The John von Neumann lectures

Nobel laureates, scholars discuss computation in the future of their fields

A group of scholars including three Nobel laureates will gather at Brown for a week-long series of talks on the future of their fields and honoring the legacy of computer pioneer and scientific polymath John von Neumann. The “Brown University 250thAnniversary Symposium: The Next 250 Years,” May 12-15, 2015, will feature talks in economics, physics, computer science, and brain science.
PROVIDENCE, R.I. [Brown University] — John von Neumann was without doubt one of the 20th century’s greatest minds. He is considered to be one of the founders of digital computing, pioneered game theory as a model of decision-making, and made critical contributions in the fields of physics, applied mathematics, and engineering.
Next week, renowned scholars including three Nobel laureates and a Turing Prize winner will give lectures at Brown in economics, physics, computer science, and brain science. Speakers will reflect on what the future may hold for their disciplines, while emphasizing von Neumann’s vision of “computation as a scientific lens.” Fourteen von Neumann lectures will be given over four days, May 12-15, 2015. Each day’s session will include a “sweat box session” — an intensive question-and-answer forum with some of the day’s speakers.
“Von Neumann was dedicated to the idea that we should tackle the hardest problems, working in symbiosis on the most abstract and most practical aspects of the problem in an intra-math, inter-sciences, cross-cultures, interdisciplinary approach,” said Sorin Istrail, the Julie Nguyen Brown Professor of Computational and Mathematical Sciences. “Von Neumann’s seminal research is organically aligned with Brown’s research mission across departments, inspiring us as we focus on the next generation of research problems.”
The week’s talks are free, open to the public, and will be held in Brown’s Center for Information Technology. The lectures will be webcast live. Speakers will include:
  • Kenneth Arrow, winner of the 1972 Nobel Prize in Economics;
  • Leon Cooper, Brown professor and winner of the 1972 Nobel Prize in Physics;
  • Frank Wilczek, winner of the 2004 Nobel Prize in Physics;
  • Leslie Valiant, winner of the 2010 ACM Turing Award; and
  • Freeman Dyson, physicist and mathematician, reflecting on his experience as a colleague of von Neumann’s at the Institute for Advanced Study.
The full schedule of 14 lectures, with information about the speakers, is available online.
The symposium was organized by Brown professors Cooper (physics), Istrail (computer science), Stuart Geman (applied mathematics), and Roberto Serrano (economics). Each considers von Neumann a hero and has tried to incorporate his vision into research and teaching. This is the second von Neumann symposium to be held at Brown. The prior event, the kick-off the John von Neumann Distinguished Lecture Series, was held at Brown in 2010.
The event is co-sponsored by Brown’s Office of the President, Office of the Provost, Office of the Vice President for Research, Office of Brown’s 250th Anniversary, Department of Computer Science, Department of Economics, Department of Neuroscience, Department of Physics, Center for Computational Biology, and Department of Biostatistics. It is hosted by the Department of Computer Science.



*****

This week’s cover preview (excl. UK):
Artificial Intelligence
May 9th – May 15th 2015
Read our cover article for free via: http://econ.st/1F7uFmn
The UK edition, featuring our special UK election cover, will be published tomorrow.