關於讓•梯若爾應該知道的五件事
英國《金融時報》 林賽•維博羅賓•哈丁報導
讓•梯若爾(Jean Tirole)成為今年第二位獲得諾貝爾獎(Nobel Prize)的法國人,他以對限制寡頭壟斷的研究獲得了諾貝爾經濟學獎。
對於他榮獲“紀念阿爾弗雷德•諾貝爾瑞典銀行經濟學獎”(Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel)的工作,我們希望通過以下五個問題做個闡明。
梯若爾最重要的貢獻是什麼?
評獎委員會讚揚梯若爾建立了第一個有關產業組織的“包羅萬象而又邏輯嚴密的理論”,並稱讚了他在寡頭壟斷監管理論上所做的貢獻。所謂產業組織理論,是解決產業結構及企業間競爭的經濟學領域。
該委員會指出他的貢獻涵蓋面極廣,並提到了他對產業組織理論的反思。該委員會還提到了他對“戰略性投資及研發競賽”、“動態寡頭壟斷”以及“合作營銷”的研究,以上領域是他與多位合作夥伴共同開展的研究。
他對寡頭壟斷監管理論有何重大發現?
在梯若爾之前,經濟學很擅長處理完全競爭問題(比如大宗商品市場),也擅長處理單極壟斷的問題。對於寡頭壟斷格局下企業的行為方式,人們也有一些一般化理解。而梯若爾的貢獻在於,他為這些理解增添了極為豐富的細節,並將它具體運用到了特定產業。他推斷說,對於寡頭壟斷,不存在普遍適用的監管方式。
他使用博弈論和契約理論等新的工具,構建了相關的理論框架。所謂博弈論,是研究衝突與合作的數學理論。契約理論,則是研究在信息不對稱條件下如何形成契約的理論。
對寡頭壟斷監管的一個巨大問題是缺乏企業成本和定價的完整信息。上世紀80年代,梯若爾與他的合作者、已故的讓-雅克•拉豐(Jean-Jacques Laffont)提出了一種新的創意,用複雜的、與產業相關的激勵式合同監管寡頭壟斷。
這種想法一方面能讓監管機構不必全面了解企業個體的經濟狀況,另一方面卻能確保消費者和社會不因產業內的超額利潤而蒙受損失。梯若爾這些研究特別針對電信產業及銀行業的監管行為。
他的研究對反壟斷政策有何影響?
梯若爾對特定產業內競爭的細緻入微的分析,引發了人們對監管行為同樣深入的反思。比如,監管機構經常會限制所謂“掠奪性定價(predatory pricing)”,即企業通過臨時性大幅壓價措施將競爭對手擠垮的行為。然而,梯若爾對報紙等產業的研究卻發現了一種無法適用這種監管方式的現象。在這類產業中,報紙的免費流通會吸引大量讀者,從而提高廣告收入。他還曾與讓-夏爾•羅歇(Jean-Charles Rochet)合作,對一類“平台市場”開展過研究。在這種“平台市場”中,“分屬不同交易方的參與者會在同一技術平台下建立十分密切的聯繫”。對於報紙這種平台市場來說,這裡的參與者是指讀者和廣告商。不過,軟件業和互聯網產業中也會以十分類似的方式開展競爭。
他還有哪些理論貢獻?
在梯若爾的長串出版清單中,還有大量其他真知灼見。為此,評獎委員會還引用了在生產鏈這一特定領域中,圍繞單極壟斷所產生的問題。在與帕特里克•雷伊(Patrick Rey)及奧利弗•哈特(Oliver Hart)合作的過程中,梯若爾得出了這樣一個結論:產業鏈中某一環節的壟斷現像也會對其他環節產生連鎖反應。產生這個現象的原因,是單極壟斷者能強行決定其產品或服務的供應量及供貨對象。
梯若爾獲獎的環境是什麼?
梯若爾研究的重要性正變得越來越大。蘋果(Apple)和谷歌(Google)等新的企業巨頭正在展開激烈競爭,他們的競爭方式卻與那種經典的經濟學模型毫無關係,後者研究的是眾多製造商和眾多消費者就同質化產品開展交易的情況。與經典模式相反,蘋果和谷歌向消費者提供的產品在價格上也許是免費的,而他們圍繞最新科技開展的競爭往往卻會導致其對市場的主導地位——至少是臨時性的主導地位。如何監管這類企業是一個棘手的政策問題。
目前,谷歌正因在互聯網搜索中的統治地位及相關行為受到歐盟(EU)監管機構的調查。此外,法國反壟斷當局仍在對幾家涉嫌大面積違規的快遞公司繼續開展調查,其中包括了最近宣稱已達成和解的英國皇家郵政(Royal Mail)和TNT。
對於政府和監管機構在全球金融危機和歐元區危機中扮演的角色,梯若爾的表態則十分強硬。 2012年,在接受法國《迴聲報》(Les Echo)採訪時,梯若爾曾表示,兩次危機均“源自”監管上的疏忽。其中,全球金融危機是源自審慎監管的缺失,而歐元區危機則是源自危機積累期間政府監管方面的疏忽。
譯者/簡易
2014年10月19日 星期日
2014年10月13日 星期一
The Shift and the Shocks 書評 (Joseph Stiglitz)
馬丁•沃爾夫(Martin Wolf)超越了他自己。這位英國《金融時報》首席經濟評論員的著作,不僅闡明瞭我們自2008年以來一直深陷經濟“亞健康”狀態,還以令人信服的分析指出我們為何有可能將這種狀態保持下去——這一點令人十分擔憂。這次危機早已催生了無數審視問題出在哪裡的著述。而《轉折與沖擊》(The Shift and the Shocks)則是率先分析為何沒有出現強勁復蘇的著作之一,它為必然出現的後繼者樹立了一個極高的標桿。
書中給出的數據顯示了我們面臨的局面有多麽糟糕。經通脹調整後,英美收入中位數仍然低於危機前水平。在歐洲,平均失業率高達12%。在問題最嚴重的西班牙和希臘兩國,青年失業率超過50%。把北大西洋看作一個整體,以危機前趨勢推算的產值與實際產值之間的累計差額高達數萬億美元。沃爾夫令人信服地論述了,這樣的結果並非不可避免,而是政策失誤的可預測結果,而且這些政策失誤還會導致長期後果。
他十分正確地指出,從根本上說,發達工業化經濟體在危機前的表現並不算好。不論是在許多歐洲國家還是在美國,總體需求的疲軟都為不力監管和低利率助長的泡沫掩蓋。目前,全球面臨的根本性問題,包括全球經濟持續不均衡以及不平等日益加劇。而自上世紀80年代的盲目自由化以來,金融業的日益失調加劇了不平等。不過,與其他眾多分析相比,沃爾夫的獨到之處在於,他認為這次危機不僅僅是一次金融危機——要理解為何經濟沒能強勁復蘇,就必須認識到這一點。
盡管確實存在困擾幾乎所有發達經濟體的共同問題,歐元區的困境卻是個十分特殊的例子。沃爾夫解釋了為何德國堅持採取的緊縮政策註定會失敗,為何這一政策為歐洲其他國家造成了巨大損失,以及為何局面沒有好轉的希望。他將這一局面比作一場失敗的婚姻:如果不改變生活方式,離婚固然代價高昂,繼續共同生活卻同樣損失慘重。
要說我對沃爾夫的分析有何不認同之處,那就是他沒有盡其所能地將論述更深入推進。在討論全球不均衡狀況時,他對美聯儲(Fed)前主席本•伯南克(Ben Bernanke)及其他人提出的“儲蓄過剩”假說的批評不夠尖銳。該假說把過去被視為美德的儲蓄看作惡習,從而將譴責導向中國和德國——後者遭遇的譴責聲音要稍小一些。然而,如今全球對投資的需求是驚人的,這包括:發展中國家對基礎設施的需求(更不用說美國了)、全球經濟轉型以應對全球變暖的需求、甚至還包括全球許多地方存在的資金匱乏的中小企業的資金需求。這些都顯而易見地表明,問題不在於儲蓄過度,而在於當前的金融體系過度痴迷於投機,而不是承擔起自己的社會責任——在資金過剩和急需資金的人之間扮演中介角色,將稀缺的儲蓄資金分配到社會回報最高的投資中去。
有趣的是,和許多金融改革的倡議者一樣,沃爾夫也著力強調保護我們免受銀行之害:要確保銀行不要過度追求高風險,因為這麽做會讓社會中的其他人承擔過高代價(或者按照經濟學家的說法,會產生外部效應)。在金融危機的餘波中,出現了一些比這更反社會的現象:市場操縱(比如倫敦銀行間同業拆借利率(Libor)醜聞和匯率操縱醜聞)、反競爭行為、掠奪性和歧視性放貸、透明度缺乏以及欺詐行為。對於這些現象,沃爾夫卻著墨不多。這也許是由於他相信,或者說希望,即使是“大到不能倒”和“大到不能抓”的銀行,政治上的影響力也不足以讓它們繼續此類行為而不傷及自身。不過,對於如何讓銀行真的承擔起應當承擔的社會責任,沃爾夫在書中討論得太少。
在導致今日困境的根本因素清單中,沃爾夫並未列入發達國家的結構轉型,即向服務業轉型,這種轉型的原因不僅僅是全球化,還有生產率的大幅提高,它必然會導致製造業就業率下滑。然而,市場自身卻不能平穩地完成這類轉型。此外,在種種服務中,人們真正想要的是醫療衛生和教育(這兩種服務天生與公共支持相關)。出於這個原因,那種在某些地方成為政治流行的緊縮政策導致了尤為突出的代價。醫療衛生和教育是面向未來的產業,它們需要加大開支,而不是縮減開支。
看完這本書會讓人感覺十分沮喪。沃爾夫提出了一系列可能帶來改變的改革措施。舉例來說,我贊同他的一個看法:對全球儲備體系的根本改革將提升今日經濟的穩定性,促進經濟增長。然而,盡管他如此清晰地闡述了我們所面臨的問題,他所列出的清單——尤其是政治上可行改革方案的清單——卻讓人感覺不足以解決如此量級的問題。例如,對於不斷加劇的不平等現象,如果它是根本宏觀問題之一(這種觀點正日益成為主流),政策清單中就該包括那些可能減輕它的政策。沃爾夫令人信服地展示了,對於那些會讓所有人(或者幾乎是所有人)受益的事情,即便事情很容易就能做到,也不太可能被付諸實施。
沃爾夫寫這本書的目的,可能是想讓我們從昏沉中清醒過來。如今,每個北大西洋國家都會抓住任何只言片語的利好消息不放。在這個過程中,他們會不時染上毫無根據的樂觀情緒。《轉折與沖擊》一書描繪的壓抑圖景就是抵制這種樂觀情緒的有力警告:我們正深陷一種“亞健康”狀態,短期內不太可能擺脫它。
《轉折與沖擊——我們從金融危機中學到了什麽、還該學什麽?》(The Shifts and the Shocks: What We’ve Learned – and Have Still to Learn – from the Financial Crisis),作者:馬丁•沃爾夫,艾倫萊恩出版社(Allen Lane),建議零售價25英鎊/企鵝出版社(Penguin Press),建議零售價35美元,496頁
約瑟夫•斯蒂格利茨(Joseph Stiglitz)是哥倫比亞大學(Columbia University)教授、諾貝爾(Nobel)經濟學獎獲得者
Jean Tirole 讓•梯若爾
當地時間週一(10月13日)中午,瑞典皇家科學院公佈了本年度諾貝爾經濟學獎得主:來自法國的讓·梯若爾教授(Jean Tirole)。評獎委員會稱,讓·梯若爾對市場的力量及其規製作出了卓越的分析研究。
Publications[edit]
Jean Tirole has published about two hundred professional articles in economics and finance, as well as 10 books including The Theory of Industrial Organization, Game Theory (with Drew Fudenberg), A Theory of Incentives in Procurement and Regulation (with Jean-Jacques Laffont), The Prudential Regulation of Banks (with Mathias Dewatripont), Competition in Telecommunications (with Jean-Jacques Laffont), Financial Crises, Liquidity, and the International Monetary System, and The Theory of Corporate Finance. His research covers industrial organization, regulation, game theory, banking and finance, psychology and economics, international finance and macroeconomics.
Books[edit]
Dynamic Models of Oligopoly (with D. Fudenberg), 1986. [1]
The Theory of Industrial Organization, MIT Press. (1988) Description and chapter-preview links.
Game Theory (with D. Fudenberg), MIT Press, 1991 [2].
A Theory of Incentives in Regulation and Procurement (with J.-J. Laffont), MIT Press,1993. Description & chapter- preview links.
The Prudential Regulation of Banks (with M. Dewatripont), MIT Press,1994. [3]
Competition in Telecommunications, MIT Press, 1999 [4].
Financial Crises, Liquidity and the International Monetary System, Princeton University Press, 2002 [5].
The Theory of Corporate Finance, Princeton University Press, 2005. Description. Association of American Publishers 2006 Award for Excellence.
Balancing the Banks (with Mahttp://press.princeton.edu/thias Dewatripont, and Jean-Charles Rochet), Princeton University Press, 2010 [6].
Inside and Outside Liquidity (with Bengt Holmström), MIT Press, 2011 [7].
Economics
The Nobel prize goes to Jean Tirole
Oct 13th 2014, 12:45 by C.R. | LONDON
法國學者讓•梯若爾(Jean Tirole)難得地獨自一人贏得諾貝爾經濟學獎(Nobel Prize for economics)。他對如何馴服寡頭壟斷的研究,幫助改變了企業監管的方式。
瑞典皇家科學院(Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences)表示,梯若爾是“我們這個時代最有影響力的經濟學家之一”。他最大的貢獻是明晰了“如何理解和監管只有幾家強勢企業的行業”。
梯若爾是知名的圖盧茲經濟學院(Toulouse School of Economics)的創始人之一,他一直被視為諾貝爾經濟學獎的可能得主。將今年的經濟學獎授予他的決定,展現了他在創造一種新的方式來看待競爭方面的深遠影響力。
瑞典央行(Riksbank)為紀念阿爾弗雷德•諾貝爾(Alfred Nobel)而設立諾貝爾經濟學獎。對於評選該獎得主的瑞典皇家科學院來說,今年的選擇標志著它回歸爭議較少的純經濟理論領域。去年,該獎被頒發給羅伯特•席勒(Robert Shiller)、尤金•法瑪(Eugene Fama)和拉爾斯•皮特•漢森(Lars Peter Hansen),以表彰他們在資產定價和有效市場方面有時自相矛盾的研究成果。
“不是一個方面,而是有很多方面,”牛津大學(Oxford university)教授保羅•克倫佩勒(Paul Klemperer)表示。“他改變了人們對於工業組織的思維方式。
“他引領我們重塑對競爭政策的理解:從完美市場的簡單模型,轉向意識到不同的情況需要不同的解決方案。”
突顯他對政策制定者影響力的是,法國前財長、即將出任歐盟委員會經濟和金融事務專員的皮埃爾•莫斯科維奇(Pierre Moscovici)表示,梯若爾的“研究成果指明瞭我們終結危機的途徑”。
出生於1953年的梯若爾以分析具有強大市場實力的企業而聞名。他證明,簡單的政策規則(比如針對壟斷企業設定價格上限)有時弊大於利。
相反,通過他的文章和著作,他提出了一個設計更佳政策的總體框架,並將其應用於從電信到銀行的多個行業。他的研究成果影響了對大型科技公司如微軟(Microsoft)和谷歌(Google)的監管。
瑞典皇家科學院表示,他的研究成果是一個“極佳的例子,說明經濟理論可能具有很大的現實意義”。
譯者/和風
Overview
The Theory of Industrial Organization is the first primary text to treat the new industrial organization at the advanced-undergraduate and graduate level. Rigorously analytical and filled with exercises coded to indicate level of difficulty, it provides a unified and modern treatment of the field with accessible models that are simplified to highlight robust economic ideas while working at an intuitive level.To aid students at different levels, each chapter is divided into a main text and supplementary section containing more advanced material. Each chapter opens with elementary models and builds on this base to incorporate current research in a coherent synthesis.Tirole begins with a background discussion of the theory of the firm. In part I he develops the modern theory of monopoly, addressing single product and multi product pricing, static and intertemporal price discrimination, quality choice, reputation, and vertical restraints.In part II, Tirole takes up strategic interaction between firms, starting with a novel treatment of the Bertrand-Cournot interdependent pricing problem. He studies how capacity constraints, repeated interaction, product positioning, advertising, and asymmetric information affect competition or tacit collusion. He then develops topics having to do with long term competition, including barriers to entry, contestability, exit, and research and development. He concludes with a "game theory user's manual" and a section of review exercises.
Downloadable instructor resources available for this title: solution manual
About the Author
Jean Tirole is Scientific Director of IDEI (Institut d'Economie Industrielle), Chairman of the Board of TSE (Toulouse School of Economics), and Annual Visiting Professor of Economics at MIT.
Endorsements
"I think that this book will fill a tremendous void in the textbook market for advanced undergraduate and graduate level courses in industrial organization and applied microeconomics. The strength of Tirole's work is his masterful synthesis of analytical development and intuitive discussion. Consequently, he makes understandable to the reader some very advanced research. This synthesis will prove invaluable to graduate students who are looking for a research niche of their own." John P. Bonin , Professor of Economics, Wesleyan University"—
Jean Tirole has published about two hundred professional articles in economics and finance, as well as 10 books including The Theory of Industrial Organization, Game Theory (with Drew Fudenberg), A Theory of Incentives in Procurement and Regulation (with Jean-Jacques Laffont), The Prudential Regulation of Banks (with Mathias Dewatripont), Competition in Telecommunications (with Jean-Jacques Laffont), Financial Crises, Liquidity, and the International Monetary System, and The Theory of Corporate Finance. His research covers industrial organization, regulation, game theory, banking and finance, psychology and economics, international finance and macroeconomics.
Books[edit]
Dynamic Models of Oligopoly (with D. Fudenberg), 1986. [1]
The Theory of Industrial Organization, MIT Press. (1988) Description and chapter-preview links.
Game Theory (with D. Fudenberg), MIT Press, 1991 [2].
A Theory of Incentives in Regulation and Procurement (with J.-J. Laffont), MIT Press,1993. Description & chapter- preview links.
The Prudential Regulation of Banks (with M. Dewatripont), MIT Press,1994. [3]
Competition in Telecommunications, MIT Press, 1999 [4].
Financial Crises, Liquidity and the International Monetary System, Princeton University Press, 2002 [5].
The Theory of Corporate Finance, Princeton University Press, 2005. Description. Association of American Publishers 2006 Award for Excellence.
Balancing the Banks (with Mahttp://press.princeton.edu/thias Dewatripont, and Jean-Charles Rochet), Princeton University Press, 2010 [6].
Inside and Outside Liquidity (with Bengt Holmström), MIT Press, 2011 [7].
Economics
The Nobel prize goes to Jean Tirole
Oct 13th 2014, 12:45 by C.R. | LONDON
AFTER last year's three-way split, this year's Sveriges Riksbank prize in economic sciences in memory of Alfred Nobel goes to a single receipient, Jean Tirole of Toulouse University in France (pictured). He has been awarded the prize for his microeconomic research investigating how large firms should be regulated in order to prevent consumers being damaged by their monopolistic behaviour.
As the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences notes on its website:
Jean Tirole is one of the most influential economists of our time. He has made important theoretical research contributions in a number of areas, but most of all he has clarified how to understand and regulate industries with a few powerful firms.Many industries are dominated by a small number of large firms or a single monopoly. Left unregulated, such markets often produce socially undesirable results—prices higher than those motivated by costs, or unproductive firms that survive by blocking the entry of new and more productive ones.From the mid-1980s and onwards, Jean Tirole has breathed new life into research on such market failures. His analysis of firms with market power provides a unified theory with a strong bearing on central policy questions: how should the government deal with mergers or cartels, and how should it regulate monopolies?Before Tirole, researchers and policymakers sought general principles for all industries. They advocated simple policy rules, such as capping prices for monopolists and prohibiting cooperation between competitors, while permitting cooperation between firms with different positions in the value chain. Tirole showed theoretically that such rules may work well in certain conditions, but do more harm than good in others. Price caps can provide dominant firms with strong motives to reduce costs—a good thing for society—but may also permit excessive profits—a bad thing for society. Cooperation on price setting within a market is usually harmful, but cooperation regarding patent pools can benefit everyone. The merger of a firm and its supplier may encourage innovation, but may also distort competition.The best regulation or competition policy should therefore be carefully adapted to every industry's specific conditions. In a series of articles and books, Jean Tirole has presented a general framework for designing such policies and applied it to a number of industries, ranging from telecommunications to banking. Drawing on these new insights, governments can better encourage powerful firms to become more productive and, at the same time, prevent them from harming competitors and customers.
Unlike some previous recipients, such as Robert Engle and Clive Granger in 2003 or Eugene Fama in 2013, who won the prize for developing new econometric methods few laymen can understand, Mr Tirole's research has direct relevance to current policy issues. Most notably, his ideas of how to regulate industries dominated by a single large firm are helping to produce strategies for how to prevent Google from using its vast market share in the internet-search business to behave as a monopoly. And as we argued back in March, Mr Tirole's theories can also help us understand the impact on markets of disruptive forces such as Uber, a taxi app that matches customers and drivers. For those readers who want to read more about Jean Tirole's research and his career in more detail, here are some links that may be of interest:
From economist.com:
Microeconomics: A golden age of micro (October 2012).
Looking good by doing good: Rewarding people for their generosity may be counterproductive (January 2009).
Matchmakers and trustbusters: "Two-sided" industries intrigue economists and incite regulators (December 2005)
Journey beyond the stars: The brightest young economists are outgrowing their discipline's traditional boundaries (December 1998).
From elsewhere on the internet:
2014年10月3日 星期五
Scientific Discovery
在25年前,Simon承認程式尚未發現任何重大科學定律。
Heuristics for Scientific Discovery: The Legacy of Herbert ...
www.isle.org/~langley/papers/has.essay.pdf
Heuristics for Scientific Discovery: The Legacy of Herbert Simon. Pat Langley. Institute for the Study of Learning and Expertise. 2164 Staunton Court, Palo Alto, ...
Herbert A. Simon - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon
For the Indiana Pacers' owner, see Herbert Simon (real estate). .... Through his uncle's books on economics and psychology, Simon discovered the social ...
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Herbert Simon's Computational Models of Scientific Discovery
www.jstor.org/stable/192696by S Downes - 1990 - Cited by 4 - Related articlesHerbert Simon's work on scientific discovery deserves serious attention by philosophers of science for several reasons. First, Simon was an early advocate of ra-.
The Economist
Watson, IBM's new multimillion-dollar machine, is able to digest and analyse large amounts of English text and then draw inferences from it. Now, by setting Watson loose on the vast corpus of scientific literature that has piled up in public databases, scientists are hoping that it will come up with promising new hypotheses for them to test in the labhttp://econ.st/1ujA4iF
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